Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)

Privat Tohouri; Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba; Satti Jean Robert Kamenan; Miessan Germain Adja

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)

Privat Tohouri^*

, Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba

, Satti Jean Robert Kamenan

, Miessan Germain Adja

Published in American Journal of Environmental Protection (Volume 14, Issue 6)

Received: 25 October 2025 Accepted: 4 November 2025 Published: 11 December 2025

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Abstract

Domestic, industrial, and agricultural pressures are increasingly impacting the Ono Lagoon watershed (Bonoua, Ivory Coast). This study aimed to identify the main sources of pollution and assess the physicochemical quality of surface waters. Twenty-five (25) sites were sampled, and ten (10) parameters were analyzed: pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, sulfate, potassium, and sodium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), two multivariate statistical methods, revealed moderate mineralization (mean electrical conductivity: 34.8 µS/cm) and significant acidity (mean pH: 5.43), both below World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Orthophosphate concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines at 88% of the sites, indicating substantial agricultural pressure. PCA identified three main gradients: seasonal nitrate leaching, agro-industrial inputs (sulfate, ammonium), and domestic pollution (nitrite, orthophosphate, potassium, sodium). HCA grouped the sites into three distinct clusters, with site S25 showing particularly degraded water quality. These results highlight the complex interactions among different pollution sources and emphasize the importance of regular monitoring of surface waters. They also underscore the need for integrated and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impacts of domestic and agricultural activities on the watershed’s surface waters. In summary, this study provides essential information to guide the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Ono Lagoon watershed.

Published in	American Journal of Environmental Protection (Volume 14, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
Page(s)	284-294
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Orthophosphates, Ono Lagoon, Principal Component Analysis, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, Diffuse Pollution, Water Quality

References

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APA Style

Tohouri, P., Anongba, B. R. V. B., Kamenan, S. J. R., Adja, M. G. (2025). Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). American Journal of Environmental Protection, 14(6), 284-294. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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ACS Style

Tohouri, P.; Anongba, B. R. V. B.; Kamenan, S. J. R.; Adja, M. G. Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). Am. J. Environ. Prot. 2025, 14(6), 284-294. doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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AMA Style

Tohouri P, Anongba BRVB, Kamenan SJR, Adja MG. Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). Am J Environ Prot. 2025;14(6):284-294. doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13,
  author = {Privat Tohouri and Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba and Satti Jean Robert Kamenan and Miessan Germain Adja},
  title = {Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)},
  journal = {American Journal of Environmental Protection},
  volume = {14},
  number = {6},
  pages = {284-294},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajep.20251406.13},
  abstract = {Domestic, industrial, and agricultural pressures are increasingly impacting the Ono Lagoon watershed (Bonoua, Ivory Coast). This study aimed to identify the main sources of pollution and assess the physicochemical quality of surface waters. Twenty-five (25) sites were sampled, and ten (10) parameters were analyzed: pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, sulfate, potassium, and sodium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), two multivariate statistical methods, revealed moderate mineralization (mean electrical conductivity: 34.8 µS/cm) and significant acidity (mean pH: 5.43), both below World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Orthophosphate concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines at 88% of the sites, indicating substantial agricultural pressure. PCA identified three main gradients: seasonal nitrate leaching, agro-industrial inputs (sulfate, ammonium), and domestic pollution (nitrite, orthophosphate, potassium, sodium). HCA grouped the sites into three distinct clusters, with site S25 showing particularly degraded water quality. These results highlight the complex interactions among different pollution sources and emphasize the importance of regular monitoring of surface waters. They also underscore the need for integrated and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impacts of domestic and agricultural activities on the watershed’s surface waters. In summary, this study provides essential information to guide the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Ono Lagoon watershed.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)
AU  - Privat Tohouri
AU  - Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba
AU  - Satti Jean Robert Kamenan
AU  - Miessan Germain Adja
Y1  - 2025/12/11
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
T2  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
JF  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
JO  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
SP  - 284
EP  - 294
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2328-5699
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
AB  - Domestic, industrial, and agricultural pressures are increasingly impacting the Ono Lagoon watershed (Bonoua, Ivory Coast). This study aimed to identify the main sources of pollution and assess the physicochemical quality of surface waters. Twenty-five (25) sites were sampled, and ten (10) parameters were analyzed: pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, sulfate, potassium, and sodium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), two multivariate statistical methods, revealed moderate mineralization (mean electrical conductivity: 34.8 µS/cm) and significant acidity (mean pH: 5.43), both below World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Orthophosphate concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines at 88% of the sites, indicating substantial agricultural pressure. PCA identified three main gradients: seasonal nitrate leaching, agro-industrial inputs (sulfate, ammonium), and domestic pollution (nitrite, orthophosphate, potassium, sodium). HCA grouped the sites into three distinct clusters, with site S25 showing particularly degraded water quality. These results highlight the complex interactions among different pollution sources and emphasize the importance of regular monitoring of surface waters. They also underscore the need for integrated and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impacts of domestic and agricultural activities on the watershed’s surface waters. In summary, this study provides essential information to guide the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Ono Lagoon watershed.
VL  - 14
IS  - 6
ER  -

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Author Information

Privat Tohouri

Department of Sciences and Technology, Higher Normal School, Abidjan, Ivory Coast

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0000-3092-7606
Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba

Department of Sciences and Technology, Higher Normal School, Abidjan, Ivory Coast

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6162-1367
Satti Jean Robert Kamenan

Department of Engineering Sciences and Technology, Houphouêt-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute, Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0003-3604-9869
Miessan Germain Adja

Department of Sciences and Technology, Higher Normal School, Abidjan, Ivory Coast

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0007-9174-656X

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APA Style

Tohouri, P., Anongba, B. R. V. B., Kamenan, S. J. R., Adja, M. G. (2025). Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). American Journal of Environmental Protection, 14(6), 284-294. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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ACS Style

Tohouri, P.; Anongba, B. R. V. B.; Kamenan, S. J. R.; Adja, M. G. Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). Am. J. Environ. Prot. 2025, 14(6), 284-294. doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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AMA Style

Tohouri P, Anongba BRVB, Kamenan SJR, Adja MG. Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast). Am J Environ Prot. 2025;14(6):284-294. doi: 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13

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@article{10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13,
  author = {Privat Tohouri and Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba and Satti Jean Robert Kamenan and Miessan Germain Adja},
  title = {Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)},
  journal = {American Journal of Environmental Protection},
  volume = {14},
  number = {6},
  pages = {284-294},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajep.20251406.13},
  abstract = {Domestic, industrial, and agricultural pressures are increasingly impacting the Ono Lagoon watershed (Bonoua, Ivory Coast). This study aimed to identify the main sources of pollution and assess the physicochemical quality of surface waters. Twenty-five (25) sites were sampled, and ten (10) parameters were analyzed: pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, sulfate, potassium, and sodium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), two multivariate statistical methods, revealed moderate mineralization (mean electrical conductivity: 34.8 µS/cm) and significant acidity (mean pH: 5.43), both below World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Orthophosphate concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines at 88% of the sites, indicating substantial agricultural pressure. PCA identified three main gradients: seasonal nitrate leaching, agro-industrial inputs (sulfate, ammonium), and domestic pollution (nitrite, orthophosphate, potassium, sodium). HCA grouped the sites into three distinct clusters, with site S25 showing particularly degraded water quality. These results highlight the complex interactions among different pollution sources and emphasize the importance of regular monitoring of surface waters. They also underscore the need for integrated and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impacts of domestic and agricultural activities on the watershed’s surface waters. In summary, this study provides essential information to guide the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Ono Lagoon watershed.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Physicochemical Characterization of Surface Waters in the Ono Lagoon Watershed Under Multiple Anthropogenic Pressures, Bonoua (Southeastern Ivory Coast)
AU  - Privat Tohouri
AU  - Braphond Rodrigue Vincent Benjamin Anongba
AU  - Satti Jean Robert Kamenan
AU  - Miessan Germain Adja
Y1  - 2025/12/11
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
T2  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
JF  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
JO  - American Journal of Environmental Protection
SP  - 284
EP  - 294
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2328-5699
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20251406.13
AB  - Domestic, industrial, and agricultural pressures are increasingly impacting the Ono Lagoon watershed (Bonoua, Ivory Coast). This study aimed to identify the main sources of pollution and assess the physicochemical quality of surface waters. Twenty-five (25) sites were sampled, and ten (10) parameters were analyzed: pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, sulfate, potassium, and sodium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), two multivariate statistical methods, revealed moderate mineralization (mean electrical conductivity: 34.8 µS/cm) and significant acidity (mean pH: 5.43), both below World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Orthophosphate concentrations exceeded WHO guidelines at 88% of the sites, indicating substantial agricultural pressure. PCA identified three main gradients: seasonal nitrate leaching, agro-industrial inputs (sulfate, ammonium), and domestic pollution (nitrite, orthophosphate, potassium, sodium). HCA grouped the sites into three distinct clusters, with site S25 showing particularly degraded water quality. These results highlight the complex interactions among different pollution sources and emphasize the importance of regular monitoring of surface waters. They also underscore the need for integrated and targeted management strategies to mitigate the impacts of domestic and agricultural activities on the watershed’s surface waters. In summary, this study provides essential information to guide the protection and sustainable management of water resources in the Ono Lagoon watershed.
VL  - 14
IS  - 6
ER  -

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